Erez Ben-Yosef

Recent research has demonstrated that the Eocene Timrat formation in northeastern Israel, which appears as an extensive land “strip” west of and parallel to the Rift Valley, was a major source of prehistoric flint. This supposition is supported by three large‐scale extraction and reduction (E&R) complexes identified within this region, which offer direct evidence of intense Lower and Middle Palaeolithic exploitation and limited Neolithic/Chalcolithic activities. Here, we present a first comprehensive overview of this “industrial strip” and of its E&R complexes (Nahal Dishon, Mt. Achbara, and Sede Ilan), demonstrating that these production areas were used mainly for the manufacture of large‐volume items such as Lower Palaeolithic hand axes, Middle Palaeolithic Levallois cores, and Neolithic/ Chalcolithic axes/adzes. Furthermore, we integrate information from recently published field studies and lithic analyses with new intercomplex and intracomplex inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (inductively coupled plasma (ICP)‐MS) analyses of flint debitage. The relatively large number of analysed samples (n = 69) constitutes the first robust reference database for provenance studies of this E&R “strip.” The potential contribution for provenance studies is demonstrated by a detailed ICP‐MS comparison drawn between specific extraction and reduction localities within the Dishon complex and flint tools found in six occupation sites located up to 20 km from the sources. The detailed geochemical study also yielded methodological insights regarding challenges associated with flint heterogeneity and patination effects.

T he Earth's magnetic field is dynamic, with fluctuations that range from minute daily variances to massive polar field reversals that occur with a frequency on the order of one million years. Magnetic minerals in heat-treated archaeological materials have the ability to store a record of these past field changes, which can be measured using modern superconducting rock magnetometers. For example, artifacts such as fired pottery or slag from metal production contain magnetic minerals that record the Earth's field strength and direction as they are cooled from high temperatures (such as those typical in ceramic kilns), providing a fixed record of the ancient field at the time of their manufacture. Compilations of well-dated sequential field measurements can act as reference curves, which can be used to estimate the age of other heat-treated archaeological materials. This is the basis for archaeomagnetic dating, an important chronological method that, as demonstrated below, is powerful even at sites that yield suitable materials for radiocarbon analysis.

Bifacial tools, primarily axes and adzes, played a significant role in the adaptation and development of new socioeconomic systems in Neolithic and Chalcolithic communities of the Levant. However, raw material extraction localities and workshops for their production are rare, and in most cases they are not associated with earlier (Paleolithic) extraction and reduction complexes. Here we report on a newly discovered, extensive bifacial workshop site at Mt. Reihan in northern Israel, which is situated within a large scale Paleolithic flint extraction and reduction complex. Based on the new finds, the production process of bifacial tools is reconstructed. The size and intensity of this workshop reflect the centrality of bifacial tools and the scale of investment in their production in Neolithic/Chalcolithic societies. Moreover, while several south Levantine axe production workshops have been found and studied, adze manufacturing workshops are a rare phenomenon. The infrequent re-use of Paleolithic landscapes for extraction by Neolithic/Chalcolithic communities is also considered.

Recent excavations in southeastern Wadi 'Araba in Jordan have revealed the first early Islamic-period copper-smelting site known in the eastern side of the valley, which extends south of the Dead Sea to the Gulf of 'Aqaba. Five test pits were excavated in 2012 at Khirbat al–Mana'iyya, a prominent copper-smelting camp in southeastern Wadi 'Araba, Jordan. The results of these excavations demonstrate that the site was primarily active in the seventh–ninth century AD. Its distance from the copper sources of southwest 'Araba suggests that its location was chosen based on proximity to wood and water resources, rather than copper ore deposits. The discovery that the site dates to the early Islamic period has implications for previous and future work in southeast 'Araba. In particular, it challenges the common—until now—view of the region as virtually devoid of settlement during this period.

The article deals with a rich ceramic assemblage retrieved during the survey and excavations of Site 34 (Slaves’ Hill) in the Timna Valley. Two main aspects of the assemblage are discussed: (1) its contribution to determining the relative and absolute chronology of the copper production sites in the Timna Valley (e.g., Sites 2, 30 and 200); and (2) the daily life of metalworkers (copper smelters) in the early Iron Age as reflected in their material culture. A detailed analysis of hundreds of indicative sherds demonstrates that the pottery assemblage can be typologically defined as belonging to the Iron I, and that activities on the isolated hilltop were limited to copper production. This strengthens the hypothesis that habitation took place in nearby transient encampments. Radiocarbon dating of short-lived samples allows fixing the pottery assemblage to within a tight timeframe, providing important evidence for the continuation of Iron I pottery tradition into the second half of the 10th century BCE. This, together with the presence of imported Qurayyah Painted Ware, places Site 34 in a key position for studying the early Iron Age in the Arabah Valley and adjacent regions.

In this article, we focus on the analysis of dyed textile fragments uncovered at an early Iron Age (11 th-10 th centuries BCE) copper smelting site during new excavations in the Timna Valley conducted by the Central Timna Valley (CTV) Project, as well as those found by the Arabah Expedition at the Hathor Temple (Site 200), dated to the Late Bronze/early Iron Ages (13 th-11 th centuries BCE). Analysis by HPLC-DAD identified two organic dyestuffs, Rubia tinctorum L. and indigotin, from a plant source (probably Isatis tinctoria L.). They are among the earliest plants known in the dyeing craft and cultivated primarily for this purpose. This study provides the earliest evidence of textiles dyed utilizing a chemical dyeing process based on an industrial dyeing plant from the Levant. Moreover, our results shed new light on the society operating the copper mines at the time, suggesting the existence of an elite that was interested in these high quality textiles and invested efforts in procuring them by long-distance trade.

This study is focused on establishing age constraints for several copper slag deposits at the centre of the Timna Valley (Israel) via reconstruction of their ancient geomagnetic intensities as recorded by the individual slag samples at the time of their formation. The results show a correlation between the location of the slag deposits (labelled as individual 'mounds' in our survey) and their inferred ages, reflecting varying socioeconomic and political dynamics in the region. While the slag mounds found at the unprotected foothills represent a variety of dates (mostly Early Islamic), the slag mounds on the hilltops are chronologically constrained to the early Iron Age (late 11th to 10th centuries BCE), supporting the idea for a need for protection during this period. Furthermore, in comparing the new data with previous archaeomagnetic studies from Timna, we can assert the existence of simultaneous copper production at the archaeological Sites 30, 30a and 34. This gives further support to the claim of intense smelting in the central Timna Valley during the early Iron Age. Finally, this project demonstrates the potential of archaeomagnetic experiments to provide chronological insights, and their particular advantage in addressing pyrotechnology-related cases.

Earth's magnetic field, one of the most enigmatic physical phenomena of the planet, is constantly changing on various time scales, from decades to millennia and longer. The reconstruction of geomagnetic field behavior in periods predating direct observations with modern instrumentation is based on geological and archaeological materials and has the twin challenges of (i) the accuracy of ancient paleomagnetic estimates and (ii) the dating of the archaeological material. Here we address the latter by using a set of storage jar handles (fired clay) stamped by royal seals as part of the ancient administrative system in Judah (Jerusalem and its vicinity). The typology of the stamp impressions, which corresponds to changes in the political entities ruling this area, provides excellent age constraints for the firing event of these artifacts. Together with rigorous paleomagnetic experimental procedures, this study yielded an unparalleled record of the geomagnetic field intensity during the eighth to second centuries BCE. The new record constitutes a substantial advance in our knowledge of past geomagnetic field variations in the southern Levant. Although it demonstrates a relatively stable and gradually declining field during the sixth to second centuries BCE, the new record provides further support for a short interval of extreme high values during the late eighth century BCE. The rate of change during this " geo-magnetic spike " [defined as virtual axial dipole moment > 160 ZAm 2 (10 21 Am 2)] is further constrained by the new data, which indicate an extremely rapid weakening of the field (losing ∼27% of its strength over ca. 30 y). archaeomagnetism | archaeointensity | levantine archaeomagnetic curve | paleosecular variation | archaeomagnetic spikes

This paper presents results of excavations at an Iron Age (~10th c. BCE) gatehouse and associated livestock pens in one of the largest copper smelting camps in Timna Valley – Site 34 (" Slaves' Hill "). The extraordinary preservation of organic materials allowed for in depth investigations of animal bones as well as seeds and pollen found in dung piles. The results demonstrate that the gatehouse area was used for keeping donkeys (or mules), which were the common draught animal at the time, together with other livestock (probably goats). The donkeys were fed with grape pomace and hay (rather than straw) that originated from the Mediterranean regions, N100 km to the northeast (Edom) and 200 km to the north (Philistia/Judea). This food reflects special treatment and care, in accordance with the key role of the donkeys in the success of copper production and trade in a logistically challenging region. Furthermore, the excavations revealed a deliberate piling of the dung against the inner face of the site's wall, most probably in order to use it as fuel in the copper smelting process (the initial heating of the furnaces). In addition, the excavations yielded insights on the metalworkers themselves, including their rich diet (as reflected by animal bones and seeds) and activities at the gatehouse area. The latter includes secondary met-allurgical processes such as refining/melting in crucibles and probably casting of ingots. Lastly, the results of this study shed new light on the Iron Age society engaged in copper production in Timna (probably early Edom), further stressing its complexity and centralized organization, as well as its involvement in interregional trade. The gatehouse and walls also indicate substantial investment in deterrence and defense, reflecting a period of instability and military threat in 10th c. BCE Timna.

The systematic archaeological study of the Timna Valley began over 50 years ago. Since then it has become a key site for understanding ancient copper production technologies in the Near East and beyond. However, the fantastic quantity of ground stone tools which are present at the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age copper smelting sites were never systematically studied. Questions regarding their origin, distribution, typologies, and especially their role within the chaîne opératoire of copper production, were seldom addressed. Although surprising, this has been the case for almost all of the excavated metal production sites around the world. In the framework of the renewed excavations at several of the copper smelting sites at Timna, a pioneering study was conducted in which more than 1000 ground stone tools were identified and registered. These tools include, among others, grinding stones, pounders, anvils and mortars; most were manufactured of compacted sandstone and granite, exposed in several locations in the valley. In this paper we present a typology and quantitative analysis of the ground stone tools which were used by the metal workers, and offer an interpretation of how the various types of tools were employed as part of the copper production process. This provides new insights regarding the smelting process and the conditions needed for its successful outcome.

A Late Chalcolithic Ghassulian assemblage of metal objects was recently uncovered during a salvage excavation at Bet Shemesh (Israel). Three axes and a mace head fragment from the assemblage were subjected to chemical composition and metallic texture analyses by SEM-EDS. While the axes were found to be composed of pure copper, in agreement with the common observation of " working tools " from this period in the southern Levant, the mace head was found to have a unique composition. In contrast to the common copper arsenic/antimony alloy used for "prestige" objects at this period, the mace head was made of leaded copper with lead concentrations N70 wt.% (in inclusions). This is the first such object reported from the Chalcolithic Levant. We suggest that similar to the use of arsenic/antimony, the addition of lead was primarily a technological requirement, done in order to facilitate production with the lost wax technique. Furthermore, this leaded copper mace head probably reflects an attempt to continue with production of "prestige" objects at times of shortage in the supply of As/Sb bronzes, and testifies for the important role these artifacts had in Ghassulian societies.

Copper Archaeometallurgy Archaeomagnetism Bronze Age Faynan Negev Old Kingdom a b s t r a c t This paper presents results of an archaeomagnetic study of slag from four Early Bronze (EB) Age copper production sites in the Faynan Copper Ore District and the northern Arabah Valley (modern Israel and Jordan). The results provide age constraints for metallurgical activities at these sites. Together with previously published data, they indicate copper production around ca. 2900 cal. BCE (EB II-III transition) and between ca. 2600-1950 cal. BCE, spanning the later part of the EB III and the entire EB IV period. These data strongly suggest a direct link between Faynan and the Old Kingdom of Egypt, which is reflected in the most significant phase of copper production and trade in the northern Arabah prior to the Iron Age, and in a settlement wave in the Negev Highlands. In addition, the results indicate that during the late EB II copper was smelted up to 40 km away from the mines. This is evident at the unique cultic site of Ashalim, located on the main road between Faynan, southeast of the Dead Sea, and the settled areas in the core of Canaan.

This paper presents for the first time results of two excavation seasons conducted in 1979 and 1984 by the Arabah Expedition at one of the major smelting camps in the copper ore district of Timna. The results, together with new radiocarbon dates of short-lived samples from the site, demonstrate that copper production during the Late Bronze Age (13th to the first half of 12th centuries BC) was undertaken on a relatively small scale in demilitarized camps, systematically organized in a distinct area at the northern part of the Timna Valley. This production system should be associated with the Egyptian presence in the region, represented by the nearby Hathor Shrine. The new data from Site 3 also shed light on the transition to the Iron Age, a period when production peaked in the entire Arabah Valley as new copper production systems were established, replacing their predecessors entirely.

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Full citation:
10. Ben-Yosef, E. and Sergi, O. 2018. The Destruction of Gath by Hazael and the Arabah Copper Industry: A Reassessment. In: Hitchcock, L., Shai, I. Uziel, J., and Dagan, A. eds. Tel it in Gath: Studies in the History and Archaeology of Israel, Essays in Honor of Aren M. Maeiron the Occasion of his Sixtieth Birthday  (Ägyptum und Altes Testament 90). Münster: 461–480.

Recent excavations in southeastern Wadi 'Araba in Jordan have revealed the first early Islamic-period copper-smelting site known in the eastern side of the valley, which extends south of the Dead Sea to the Gulf of 'Aqaba. Five test pits were excavated in 2012 at Khirbat al–Mana'iyya, a prominent copper-smelting camp in southeastern Wadi 'Araba, Jordan. The results of these excavations demonstrate that the site was primarily active in the seventh–ninth century AD. Its distance from the copper sources of southwest 'Araba suggests that its location was chosen based on proximity to wood and water resources, rather than copper ore deposits. The discovery that the site dates to the early Islamic period has implications for previous and future work in southeast 'Araba. In particular, it challenges the common—until now—view of the region as virtually devoid of settlement during this period.

In this article, we focus on the analysis of dyed textile fragments uncovered at an early Iron Age (11 th-10 th centuries BCE) copper smelting site during new excavations in the Timna Valley conducted by the Central Timna Valley (CTV) Project, as well as those found by the Arabah Expedition at the Hathor Temple (Site 200), dated to the Late Bronze/early Iron Ages (13 th-11 th centuries BCE). Analysis by HPLC-DAD identified two organic dyestuffs, Rubia tinctorum L. and indigotin, from a plant source (probably Isatis tinctoria L.). They are among the earliest plants known in the dyeing craft and cultivated primarily for this purpose. This study provides the earliest evidence of textiles dyed utilizing a chemical dyeing process based on an industrial dyeing plant from the Levant. Moreover, our results shed new light on the society operating the copper mines at the time, suggesting the existence of an elite that was interested in these high quality textiles and invested efforts in procuring them by long-distance trade.

Commemorating the institute's founder, Professor Yohanan Aharoni, the Aharoni Day symposium is the institute's most important yearly event, with the largest attendance of both scholars and laypersons. While the symposium is generally dedicated to the archaeology of the Ancient Near East, its specific theme varies each year according to the research activities and initiatives of the institute's members. This year's symposium is focused on advancements in archaeometallurgy, following the publication by our institute of the new edited book "Mining for Ancient Copper: Essays in Memory of Professor Beno Rothenberg".